In the proton-proton chain, protons collide directly with other protons to form helium nuclei. The fundamental components of atoms are the proton, neutron, and electron (see The Structure of the Atom). But a related problem is that when one tries to merge the two theories, infinities abound; and when an infinity arises in a calculation, this is a red flag that you have somehow done something wrong. Such interactions happen to gamma rays again and again and again as they make their way slowly toward the outer layers of the Sun, until their energy becomes so reduced that they are no longer gamma rays but X-rays (recall what you learned in The Electromagnetic Spectrum). One of them was Robert Millikan, who ironically eventually ended up experimentally verifying Einsteins theory. The remarkable equivalence between matter and energy is given in one of the most famous equations: In this equation, E stands for energy, \(m\) stands for mass, and \(c\), the constant that relates the two, is the speed of light (\(3 10^8\) meters per second). WebNOVAEinstein's Big Idea. So we must look to fusion first to explain the energy of the Sun and the stars (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Its true that if we can get them within striking distance of the nuclear force, they will then come together with a much stronger attraction. A quick thought experiment shows how important this force is. For example, he figured out that light is made upof many little particles called photons. Though it is possible that the serious pursuit of an atomic weapons' program in the US might have been delayed if not for Einstein's urgings, his impact has often been overstated. The initial step required to form one helium nucleus from four hydrogen nuclei is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). ITER is based on the Tokamak design, in which a large doughnut-shaped container is surrounded by superconducting magnets to confine and control the hydrogen nuclei in a strong magnetic field. He is author of several science books for the public, including his most recent one, The Large Hadron Collider: The Extraordinary Story of the Higgs Boson and Other Stuff That Will Blow Your Mind (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014). Notice that this formula does not tell us how to convert mass into energy, just as the formula for cents does not tell us where to exchange coins for a dollar bill. While it is tempting to describe the history of this attempt, the effort is of interest primarily to historians. In the CNO cycle, carbon and hydrogen nuclei collide to initiate a series of reactions that form nitrogen, oxygen, and ultimately, helium. The results of science shaped the world, but the practice of science became less and less a part of it. In other words, the energy comes from the loss of mass. The elusive neutrino was not detected until 1956. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. 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